Blog - Neuromodulation and timing

Brain–computer interfaces and neuromodulation are often portrayed as cutting-edge, futuristic technologies. In reality, the field has deep historical roots. In this blog, I aim to showcase formative example that reminds us how long scientists have been exploring direct interactions with the brain—and how strongly scientific progress is shaped by timing, context, and economic forces.

As early as the mid-20th century, José Manuel Rodríguez Delgado, a Spanish neuroscientist working at Yale University, pioneered implantable brain-stimulation devices. These systems enabled remote electrical stimulation of specific brain regions in animals—and later in humans. In one of the most iconic demonstrations in neuroscience history, Delgado famously halted a charging bull in 1963 by activating electrodes implanted in its brain.

Beyond the dramatic imagery, Delgado’s work provided foundational insights into the neural bases of behavior, emotion, and movement. At the same time, it sparked enduring ethical debates around autonomy, free will, and the limits of technological intervention in the human brain—debates that remain highly relevant today as neuromodulation and BCI technologies mature.

An intriguing question is why Delgado’s work emerged when it did—and why it did not immediately translate into widespread technological adoption. The timing of his research coincided with a period of intense public and governmental investment in science, driven by post-war optimism, Cold War competition, and major funding of basic research in the United States. This environment enabled bold, high-risk experimentation that would be difficult to initiate under today’s regulatory and ethical frameworks.

At the same time, the broader technological and economic ecosystem was not yet ready. Critical enabling technologies—miniaturized electronics, low-power computation, advanced materials, wireless communication, and scalable manufacturing—were still decades away. As a result, Delgado’s ideas were scientifically visionary but economically and technologically premature. Without a viable pathway to safe, scalable, and socially acceptable deployment, his work remained largely confined to the laboratory and to public imagination.

Today, the situation is markedly different. Advances in materials science, microelectronics, data science, and wearable systems—combined with strong commercial interest and new healthcare and human–machine interaction markets—have created fertile ground for neuromodulation and brain–computer interfaces to re-emerge, this time with real translational momentum. Importantly, these developments are accompanied by more structured ethical oversight, public engagement, and regulatory scrutiny.

Delgado’s legacy reminds us that innovation is not only about ideas, but also about timing—and about the economic, technological, and societal conditions that allow ideas to take root. As we push forward with modern BCIs, closed-loop neuromodulation, and wearable neurotechnologies, it is worth reflecting on how earlier pioneers shaped the questions we are still trying to answer today.